The Battle of Mobile Bay

Battle of Mobile Bay, by Louis Prang

I've long considered myself to be a student of history. Though I'm a software engineer by trade, history has always been my favorite subject. In particular, I've always been fascinated by major historical events and the impact that they had on the world, and while some major events and the places in which they occurred may be familiar to almost everyone, I believe that just about every place has a rich history of one sort or another.

When I moved to Mobile, Alabama in the summer of 2014, one of the first things I made sure to do in my free time was to start researching the city's past. To be certain, Mobile does not lack for rich history, and my studies into it have only begun. That said, one event in particular caught my attention, and it's that event that will be the focus of this blog post: The Battle of Mobile Bay.

In the annuals of the Civil War, the Battle of Mobile Bay is often overlooked. While it may have lacked the scale, drama, and sheer violence of the battles of Antietam, Gettysburg, or Shiloh, the struggle for control of the lower Mobile Bay was vitally important, nonetheless. In the end, the engagement would have ramifications that would be felt far and wide, and ultimately played a crucial part in securing an overall victory for the Union.

Background

From the onset of the war, the Confederacy decided to focus its naval defenses on a handful of vital ports in lieu of attempting to defend its entire coastline. When New Orleans fell early in the war in April 1862, Mobile stood as the last major Confederate port to the Gulf of Mexico. While Union naval forces had established a blockade of the port soon after hostilities began, specialized Confederate ships called "blockade runners" were able to evade the blockade with regularity.

Despite its strategic importance, the task of securing Mobile Bay for the Union was continually delayed. Capturing Vicksburg and securing the lower Mississippi was considered a higher priority and monopolized the Navy's attention and resources for almost all of 1863. In addition, the Navy had trouble securing the cooperation of the Army to provide the resources needed for the operation, as there was a continual need to divert manpower to the east to confront General Lee and the Army of Northern Virginia. As a result of these delays, the campaign to take Mobile Bay didn't begin until August 1864, relatively late in the war.

The capture of Mobile Bay was also important from a political perspective. While the Confederacy was on its last legs at this point in the war, the conflict was growing increasingly unpopular in the North. President Lincoln was up for re-election in November, and the Democratic party made it clear that they sought to sign a negotiated settlement with the Confederacy to end the war as soon as possible (even though the party's candidate for President, General George McClellan, favored a continuation of hostilities). Lincoln understood that any outcome that did not include the dissolution of the Confederacy and the complete reunification of the nation would be a disaster, and that a major victory (or two) before Election Day would be needed to secure his re-election and a continuation of the war. To that end, the capture of the last major Confederate port in the Gulf of Mexico would help immensely.

Union Forces

Navy

Admiral David Farragut

The Union naval force selected for the campaign consisted of a mixed flotilla of traditional combat ships (9), small gunboats (2), modern ironclad Monitor-class ships (4) and specialized river and shallow-channel navigation ships (3) for a total of 18 ships of the line. In command was Admiral David Farragut, who had led the successful Union naval campaigns to take New Orleans, Vicksburg, and Port Hudson.

Army

General Gordon Granger

Union Army forces provisioned for the battle included approximately 3,000 soldiers, not enough to secure Mobile itself but sufficient to neutralize and occupy the Confederate forts defending the bay. The ground forces were led by General Gordon Granger.

Confederate Forces

Navy

Admiral Franklin Buchanan

Only a small flotilla of Confederate vessels stood in opposition of the Union naval forces. Three small gunboats sailed alongside the ironclad CSS Tennessee, the only armored Confederate ship stationed in the bay. Commanding the flotilla from the Tennessee was Admiral Franklin Buchanan, who had commanded the CSS Virginia in her famous battle with the USS Monitor at Hampton Roads.

Army

General Richard Page

Confederate land defenses in Mobile Bay consisted of three strategically positioned forts: Powell, Gaines, and Morgan. Forts Gaines and Morgan defended the main shipping channel into the bay, while Powell defended the secondary channel. The overall commander of the Confederate Army forces was General Richard Page, who directed the battle from Fort Morgan.

Battle

Map of the naval engagement in Mobile Bay

The Union plan called for the operation to be divided into two phases: The naval action to secure the bay and initiate a bombardment of the forts, and the land action to lay siege to and force the capitulation of the forts themselves.

Naval Action

Sketch of the sinking of the Tecumseh

Hostilities began on the morning of August 5. The Union plan called for Farragut's fleet to enter the main shipping channel leading into the bay, keeping to the eastern side of the channel (close to Fort Morgan) in order to avoid the obstacles and mines that had been laid on the western side. The first shots were fired at 6:47 a.m. as the head of the Union column entered the channel. The ships and Fort Morgan exchanged fire, but neither were significantly harmed.

Shortly after entering the channel, the lead Union ship, the USS Tecumseh, sighted the CSS Tennessee. For reasons unknown, the Tecumseh decided to push straight through the minefield and head directly for the Tennessee. Upon entering the minefield, the Tecumseh struck a mine and quickly sunk with the loss of 93 of her crew of 114.

After the sinking of the Tecumseh, the second ship in the column, the USS Brooklyn, stopped to ask Admiral Farragut for orders. Farragut, unwilling to stop his ships to distribute orders, commanded his flagship (the USS Hartford) to sail around the Brooklyn and assume the lead position of the column. Once in position, Farragut made the bold decision to take his fleet straight through the minefield that had just sunk the Tecumseh and head right for the Confederate fleet (this is when he supposedly uttered his famous line, "Damn the torpedoes! Full speed ahead!", though there is considerable doubt as to whether he actually said anything of the sort). The gamble paid off: The remaining Union ships made it through the minefield unharmed and ready to engage the bay's defenders.

Once through the minefield, the small, fast Union gunboats engaged the three defending Confederate gunboats: 2 were quickly neutralized and the last fled to the safety of Fort Morgan, where it escaped from the Bay the following day. This left only the Tennessee to oppose to the Union fleet, which Farragut's three remaining Monitor-class ships quickly moved to engage.

The battle with the Tennessee was fierce. The thick iron hulls of the ships caused most of the shots fired to simply bounce off, but under the superior firepower of the Union vessels, the Tennessee was slowly worn down. Eventually, the Tennessee sustained significant damage and was immobilized. Aboard the ship, Admiral Buchanan was badly wounded and the ship's captain, Commander James Johnston, requested permission to surrender, which Buchanan granted.

Land Action

Fort Morgan after the Battle of Mobile Bay

Once the Confederate flotilla had been neutralized, Farragut turned his attention to the forts defending the bay. General Granger's force landed on Dauphin Island in preparation to attack Forts Gaines and Powell while Farragut ordered his fleet to provide cover by intermittently shelling each of the forts. Shortly after the Union forces came ashore on Dauphin, the commander of Fort Powell, Colonel James Williams, asked General Page for orders. Page ambiguously replied to "Hold out as long as you can", which Williams took to mean to resist the Union forces as long as practical. After surveying the odds against him, Williams decided to abandon Fort Powell without a fight; he and his troops then retreated to Mobile.

Colonel Charles Anderson and the Confederate forces at Fort Powell held out a little longer, but the end result was much the same: Undersupplied and thoroughly outgunned, Anderson surrendered the fort on August 8 after a three-day siege.

Once Forts Gaines and Powell were occupied, Fort Morgan was left as the lone remaining Confederate defensive position in the lower Mobile Bay. On August 9, Granger moved his force to the isthmus behind Fort Morgan, landing about 4 miles from the fort. From there, he and his troops slowly made their way toward the fort via trenching, or constructing a series of parallel tranches on approach. While this was a slow process, it did effectively keep the Union troops shielded from fire from the fort while making their advance.

Meanwhile, the Union fleet continued to shell Fort Morgan intermittently. These bombardments kept the fort effectively suppressed and culminated in a day-long bombardment on August 22. After seeing the Union ground forces continue their advance undeterred and with the Union fleet inflicting considerable damage to the fort itself, General Page surrendered Fort Powell on August 23. With the acquiescence of Fort Powell, the Battle of Mobile Bay came to an end.

Aftermath

Plaque commemorating the Battle of Mobile Bay at the U.S. Navy memorial

The Battle of Mobile Bay was not particularly bloody when compared to other major Civil War battles. All told, Union casualties stood at about 151 killed (mostly the crew of the Tecumseh) and 177 wounded, while Confederate casualties totaled about 13 killed and 22 wounded. However, Confederate losses also included over 1,500 captured, which was a painful blow to the manpower-strapped Confederacy.

The Union victory had a meaningful impact on public opinion toward the war effort. While given little attention initially, the successful conquest of Mobile Bay, when combined with other Union successes in 1864 (including the capture of Atlanta the month before), gave the public reason to hope that the end of the war was near. This newfound optimism helped secure Lincoln's re-election in November, which in turn afforded his administration the time it needed to see to the war to its conclusion.

Mobile itself was not as strategically important a target, and it would remain unconquered until the final days of the war. Eventually, it would fall after the Battle of Fort Blakely, which is considered the last major battle of the war.

The legacy of the Battle of Mobile Bay is still alive and well in the city of Mobile today. Many of the fortifications (including forts Powell, Gaines, and Morgan) are still intact and are in use as historical landmarks. In addition, the wrecks of the ships that fought in the battle (including the Tecumseh) have been located and surveyed.

Ultimately, the lasting legacy of the Battle of Mobile Bay might be found in the impact that it had on the war at large. While the strategic impact of the battle did little to alter the course of the war, its political value in helping sustain public support for the war should not be underestimated. When the need for a victory was dire, the Battle of Mobile Bay delivered, and in doing so contributed to a successful end to the war in a way that few other engagements did. After all, sometimes even the "small" battles can make the biggest of differences.

Ball of Fire

During its Golden Age, Hollywood had no shortage of talented and versatile actresses. However, few of them could light up the screen quite like Barbara Stanwyck. With a screen presence that burned brighter than most and a tough-as-nails constitution to match, Stanwyck was undoubtedly one of the silver screen's all-time greats.

Barbara Stanwyck

Publicity photo c. 1930

Early Life

Ruby Catherine Stevens was born on July 16, 1907 in Brooklyn, New York to Byron and Catherine Stevens. When Ruby was only 4 years old, her mother was killed in a street car accident. Grief-stricken, her father abandoned the family two weeks later to join a Panama Canal work crew and was never seen again. Suddenly an orphan, Ruby was raised in a series of foster homes until about age 10, when she moved in with her older sister who was working as a night club showgirl. Growing up backstage in New York's speakeasy's, Ruby watched her sister's performances and taught herself the dance routines. Because of her early exposure to show business, Ruby developed an appreciation for the stage and committed herself to pursuing a career in entertainment from childhood. At around 16, Ruby dropped out of school and found work as both a model and a dancer, performing at various theaters and clubs in and around New York City.

Broadway Career

Stanwyck during her short-lived modeling career, c. 1924

In 1922, Ruby was discovered by a Broadway talent scout. She was given a small role in a play called The Noose, which proved to be quite successful. At the suggestion of the play's director, Ruby adopted a stage name, combining the first name of her character with the last name of a co-star to form Barbara Stanwyck. Due to the success of The Noose, Stanwyck was soon given the lead role in another Broadway production, Burlesque. The play proved to be another success, but it would also mark the end of her Broadway career. Noticed by a Hollywood scout, she was given a screen test for a lead role in a new film, Broadway Nights. Unable to cry on command during the test, Stanwyck saw her offer reduced to a bit part. Still, the allure of Hollywood was strong, and Stanwyck eagerly accepted the opportunity to start a film career.

Early Hollywood Career

A young Stanwyck stares down Clark Gable in Night Nurse (1931)

Unlike her experience on Broadway, Stanwyck's start in Hollywood would prove rocky. Her first three films were failures, and in 1930 she was on the verge of leaving Hollywood for good when up-and-coming director Frank Capra selected her for a lead role in his new film, Ladies of Leisure. One of the first widely successful sound films, Ladies proved to be a commercial success and critics praised Stanwyck's emotional, heartfelt performance.

Stanwyck followed up Ladies with another prominent role in 1931, that of a heroic nurse rescuing two children from a devious Clark Gable in Night Nurse. Despite concerns over the film's dark subject matter, the production was a success and Stanwyck solidified herself as one of Hollywood's up-and-coming talents.

In addition to her newfound fame following her first successes, Stanwyck acquired a reputation of being one of the most professional and hardworking players in Hollywood. At a time when big names with even bigger egos dominated the set and made life difficult for directors, producers, and stage crews alike, Stanwyck stood out as someone who could be counted on to deliver a quality performance with minimal difficulty, regardless of what was asked of her. In addition, while petty rivalries between top actors were the stuff of legend, Stanwyck made it a point to be warm and inviting to her co-stars, regardless of their status or experience. Hollywood took notice, and Stanwyck quickly became one of the most popular actresses among both casts and crews alike.

Rise to Stardom

Over the next 6 years, Stanwyck starred in a number of productions with varying levels of success. While some of these films were successful (the most notable of which being His Brother's Wife in 1936) and helped build her profile, Stanwyck had yet to find her true breakout role. That would change in 1937 when she signed on to play the title role in the drama Stella Dallas.

Stella Dallas (1937)

Production still from Stella Dallas (1937)

The second screen adaptation of a popular novel, Stella Dallas proved to be Stanwyck's vehicle to superstardom. The film cast Stanwyck as the poor girl Stella, who is determined to make a better life for herself by marrying into the upper class. Once she weds her beau (an up-and-coming businessman), she finds that she has trouble fitting in with high society and struggles to manage her life and relationships. Stanwyck's heartfelt portrayal of Dallas (inspired in part by her own rags-to-riches story) resonated with audiences and critics alike, and earned her an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress.

Peak Years

Now unquestionably one of Hollywood's top stars, Stanwyck found herself under consideration for virtually every top role that came by. Several prominent films followed, including the hits Union Pacific (1939) and Remember the Night (1940). Eventually, this popularity would see Stanwyck put together one of the all-time best single-year runs in Hollywood history in 1941.

The Lady Eve (1941)

Publicity photo for The Lady Eve (1941), alongside Henry Fonda

To kick off this remarkable run, Stanwyck starred in one of the greatest screwball comedy roles of all time in The Lady Eve, in which she plays a crafty card shark who ends up falling in love with her latest mark, a bumbling Ophidiologist played by Henry Fonda.

Hailed as one of the greatest comedies of all time, The Lady Eve was a smash hit. The on-screen chemistry between Stanwyck and Fonda was excellent, so much so that they reunited for another film later in the year (You Belong to Me), which would also be a hit.

Meet John Doe (1941)

Stanwyck and Gary Cooper in Meet John Doe (1941)

Shortly after wrapping up Eve, Stanwyck reunited with director Frank Capra to star alongside Gary Cooper in Meet John Doe. The film marked Stanwyck's fourth collaboration with Capra, but her first with Cooper, one of the top actors in Hollywood at the time. Cooper himself was eager to work with Stanwyck after having seen her recent work.

In Meet John Doe, Stanwyck plays the role of a sly reporter who, to keep from being laid off, publishes a sensational protest manifesto under the auspices of "John Doe" and unwittingly starts a political movement. Once word of the piece spreads, Stanwyck's character convinces her bosses to hire a bum (Cooper) to pose as "John Doe" and serve as a figurehead for the movement.

Meet John Doe was an instant hit. The film's timely narrative was well-received, and both Cooper and Stanwyck's performances were praised. For Stanwyck, the pairing with Cooper (her highest-profile co-star to date) was a boost for her career, and the two players would quickly reunite for another hit film.

Ball of Fire (1941)

Cooper and Stanwyck in a publicity still for Ball of Fire (1941)

Later in 1941, Gray Cooper signed on for the lead role in the comedy Ball of Fire, directed by Howard Hawks. While Cooper was a shoe-in for the male lead, the female lead was tougher to cast. Lucille Ball, Carole Lombard, Ginger Rogers, and Jean Arthur were all contacted about the role, but for one reason or another, they all turned it down. Cooper then suggested Stanwyck, with whom he had worked in Meet John Doe.

A screwball adaptation of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Ball of Fire sees Stanwyck play the part of a showgirl on the run from the police who want her to testify against her mobster boyfriend. She eventually hides out with a team of professors (led by Cooper) who are working on a new encyclopedia. Intrigued by her worldliness, Cooper allows her to stay with him so that he can learn the ins-and-outs of modern slang, which he intends to include in his volume.

Like their previous collaboration, Ball of Fire proved to be a hit for both Cooper and Stanwyck. Stanwyck in particular received praise for her performance (inspired in part by her past experience working as a showgirl), which secured her a second nomination for Best Actress.

Double Indemnity (1943)

Still from Double Indemnity (1943) with Fred MacMurray

After a hugely successful run in 1941, Stanwyck solidified her position as one of Hollywood's top actresses. However, her next big hit would not be until 1943 when she would star in one of the most iconic film noir roles of all time in Double Indemnity.

Adapted from a novella that was based a real 1927 case, Double Indemnity sees Stanwyck play the part of a femme fatale who convinces an insurance salesman to murder her husband. Though she was director Billy Wilder's first and only choice for the part, Stanwyck was quite hesitant to take the role; not only was it unfamiliar territory for her professionally, she worried that the nature of the part could damage her image.

In addition, Stanwyck was known for being particularly kind and approachable: This made it particularly difficult for Stanwyck (and others) to believe that she could convincingly portray a cold murderess. However, Wilder was sure that she was perfect for the role, and eventually convinced her to take it. Ultimately, the decision paid off for Stanwyck: Not only did she end up collecting her third nomination for Best Actress, but she put on a performance that is universally considered the best of her career.

Late Career

Christmas in Connecticut (1945)

Still from Christmas in Connecticut (1945) with Dennis Morgan

While Double Indemnity was a rip-roaring success, Stanwyck was eager to return to her roots a light and warm comedy (as she wanted to avoid being typecast). 1945's Christmas in Connecticut fit the bill: The script sees Stanwyck play an unmarried writer who must deceive her boss into believing that she is a perfect housewife when he invites himself and a war veteran over to her house for Christmas.

Christmas in Connecticut did well at the box office and would go on to become a holiday classic. For Stanwyck, the return to comedy was a success, but at 38 years old, her age was slowly becoming more of a liability. The more prominent roles in Hollywood were starting to shift toward younger actresses, and it would be 3 years before Stanwyck would have another unqualified hit.

Sorry, Wrong Number (1948)

Publicity still for Sorry, Wrong Number (1948)

The next few years saw Stanwyck's career slow down appreciably; her films over this span were generally poorly received, and Stanwyck herself wasn't getting any younger. Also, Stanwyck increasingly delved into film noir, spurred in part by her success in Double Indemnity and because the genre was more accommodating to older actresses (like herself) than comedy or traditional drama. While she may have entered the final phase of her film career, Stanwyck had one last Oscar-caliber performance to put on in the film noir thriller Sorry, Wrong Number.

In Sorry, Wrong Number, Stanwyck plays a bedridden wife who overhears a murder plot over her phone line and rushes to solve it before it's too late. Sorry, Wrong Number was a challenge for Stanwyck, as the script saw her character confined to a bed for most of the film. In addition, her scenes were shot over a grueling 12-day period, an taxing task for the aging actress. Nevertheless, Stanwyck's legendary work ethic prevailed; the film was a success and Stanwyck's performance earned her a fourth (and final) nomination for Best Actress.

Later Years

Publicity photo for The Big Valley, c. 1965

After Sorry, Wrong Number, Stanwyck's film career would begin to decline for good. While she established herself well in film noir in the second half of her career (including starring in successful productions like The Strange Love of Martha Ivers, Clash by Night, Jeopardy, and Crime of Passion), her major hit roles were well behind her.

Late in her film career, Stanwyck began to explore opportunities on TV, beginning with The Barbara Stanwyck Show in 1960, which ran for a single season. After having been nominated for four Oscars for Best Actress and losing out each time, 1961 saw Stanwyck finally take home a major award when she won the Emmy for Best Actress for her performance in The Barbara Stanwyck Show.

In 1964, Stanwyck left the silver screen for good, and started a new role on TV in the Western series The Big Valley, which ran from 1965-1968 (it's this role for which she is best remembered by modern audiences). Stanwyck's performance in The Big Valley would earn her an additional Emmy win in 1966 and two more nominations, one each in 1967 and 1968.

Years later, Stanwyck would return to TV for what would essentially be the swan song for her long and illustrious career in show business. In 1983, at the age of 76, Stanwyck starred in the hit TV miniseries The Thorn Birds, for which she would win her final Emmy. In 1985, Stanwyck retired from public life for good. 

In 1990, Barbara Stanwyck died of heart failure caused by COPD (she had been a heavy smoker throughout her life) at Saint John's Health Center in Santa Monica, California. By her wishes, no funeral service was held and her remains were cremated and scattered over Lone Pine, California.

Legacy

Publicity photo c. 1930s

Barbara Stanwyck's legacy ranks among the all-time Hollywood greats. A 38-year Hollywood career (not to mention an additional 22 years on television, for an astounding 60 total years in show business) that saw her make 85 films and score 4 Oscar nominations is one that cannot be easily overlooked. Her success was due in no small part to her captivating screen presence, which was remarkable even among the Hollywood elite. And yet, acknowledging that alone just doesn't do her legacy justice.

Hollywood has always been a place where large egos and a culture of selfishness has abounded. To an extent, Stanwyck was an exception to that rule. For sure, she wielded a larger-than-life persona and allowed nothing to stand in the way of her career, but it's the care and professionalism with which she practiced her craft that I believe is the other enduring side to her legacy. Whether it was taking the time to learn the names of the families of the crew and asking about them regularly, pushing through brutal shooting schedules without complaint, or even performing elaborate stunts that hardened daredevils refused to attempt, Stanwyck exercised a work ethic second to none.

All things considered, Stanwyck was an exceptional actress. Though a woman of humble origins, she exhibited a complexity that defies easy classification. That said, if I had to ascribe a moniker to her, I would choose no other than the title of the production that earned her a second Oscar nomination... a true Ball of Fire.

Higher (cost) Education

Around this time of the year, the elation of graduation can be seen all around us: On TV, in newspapers, on social media, and elsewhere. However, for most graduates, the euphoria of their achievement is soon tempered by the reality of the burden that now rests on their finances and their future: Student loan debt. Many new graduates will struggle to manage their debt obligations, and some may even wonder if college was worth it in the end. However, the one question that I have noticed that is not being asked enough is this: Why is higher education so expensive in the first place?

Now, that's not to say that the issue of the expense of education has been muted. In recent years, a lot has been made of the cost of attending college, and at a time when a degree is a virtual requirement for success in today's economy, an increasingly high price tag is a particularly tough pill to swallow. Now, there are a lot of different ways to manage the cost of attending college: 529 savings plans, scholarships, grants, co-ops, and student loans are just a few. However, even when employing a mix of savings, scholarships, and loans to help cover costs, the final price tag is still quite high, even prohibitively so. All of this reinforces my curiosity behind my earlier question. In this post, I'll discuss (and dispel) the most commonly cited explanation behind of expense of higher ed, and provide a theory of my own.

Is declining state investment to blame?

When it comes to assessing responsibility for the sharp increase in college tuition over the last few years, state governments tend to shoulder the majority of the public's blame. The reasoning goes something like this: Since public institutions have two primary revenue streams, state funding and tuition, the most likely cause for the sharp increase in tuition rates over the last few years can only be due to an attempt by schools to maintain their revenue levels in the face of a decrease in state funding. The supposed cause of this decrease in public funding varies from state to state, ranging from shifting budgetary priorities to a decline in general tax revenue due to unfavorable economic conditions, but the idea is still the same: Because states are spending less on education, colleges are being force to make up the difference by charging students more.

Graph showing the level of overall state funding for higher education (red) compared to the average price of tuition (blue) from 2000 to 2015

There's just one problem with this theory; it's incorrect. A study conducted by the Bipartisan Policy Center (available here) concludes that from 2000 to 2015, overall state funding levels for higher education have remained mostly flat, while the average tuition price nearly doubled over the same period. Now, it's worth noting that state funding did experience fluctuations, but never more than a few percentage points in either direction. Thus, the most commonly cited explanation for the increase in tuition prices doesn't stand up to scrutiny.

Is bigger really better?

 

My personal theory is quite simple: Schools have gotten too big. Now, this is not to say that the size of the student bodies that schools serve have grown too much, but rather that schools are exceeding their core mission of providing a quality education. You see, back when our public institutions of higher learning were first established, schools were quite Spartan by today's standards; campuses consisted of a few classroom buildings, maybe a dorm or two, an administration building, and that's about it.

Compare that to today, where schools are sprawling cities unto themselves, covering square miles of land, consisting of dozens of structures (that are constantly being demolished, rebuilt, or expanded), many of which house services that have only a tangential relation to education (think supersized football stadiums, food courts, coffee shops, and more student organizations than you can shake a stick at, just to name a few). Now, I understand all of that "fluff" adds to the college experience (the sports venues were particular favorites of mine), but it comes at a cost... literally. Cut it all out and I guarantee that operating a school wouldn't be nearly as expensive as it is today.

So, now the question becomes this: Why hasn't any school done just that? Leave out all of the "fluff", drastically reduce tuition costs, and attract students that way? Simply put, schools know their audience. Wide-eyed 18 year-olds aren't thinking about their financial futures as much as they are thinking about all of the great times they're going to have immersing themselves in the "college experience". In addition, obtaining credit for the purpose of attending school is relatively easy, so regardless of what schools decide to charge for tuition, students won't likely have difficulty getting their foot in the door.

Add all of this up, and it has created a "race to the top" situation, where schools are spending increasingly large amounts of capital to create ever-more premium experiences to attract students. While this does benefit students in the short run (after all, who doesn't like brand-new dorms with a Starbucks in the lobby?), the benefits themselves are largely superfluous and do not outweigh the additional costs they incur.

What's to be done?

 

That's somewhat of a loaded question. Several solutions are been proposed, including offering incentives to schools to keep tuition costs low, restricting access to credit for students, and even having the government subsidize all tuition fees. Personally, I don't have a silver-bullet answer, but this is something that I'm going to continue researching.

In addition, several alternatives to traditional four-year colleges have started to increase in popularity over the last few years. Technical schools, boot camps, and employer training are all becoming more prominent and are gaining acceptance within the private sector, allowing people to obtain the real-world skills they need to be competitive in today's economy without accruing the heavy debt burden of a traditional education. However, only time will tell if this is going to be a viable path forward or simply a passing fad.

For now, costly tuition is a reality that we're going to have to live with. Prices aren't likely to come down anytime soon, and if recent history is any indication, they're probably not finished rising, either. Only time will tell if market forces or public opposition will eventually compel institutions of higher learning to address this issue.

Man of the West

Throughout Hollywood's Golden Age, few actors proved as versatile or memorable as Gary Cooper. Cooper's humble, authentic style of acting resonated with audiences far and wide, and ultimately helped establish him as one of the silver screen's finest players. Throughout his career, Cooper starred in over 80 films, including classics such as The Virginian, Mr. Deeds Goes to Town, Sergeant York, The Pride of the Yankees, and his definitive work, High Noon. While he grew up the quintessential cowboy and is perhaps best remembered for his westerns, Cooper excelled in many different kinds of roles. That said, the one common thread seen in all of Cooper's performances was that of a genuine, natural performer to whom audiences could almost relate. It was this quality that led to Cooper being called "The champion of the common man", a new type of hero in a time that desperately needed one. Whether he was portraying the charming Longfellow Deeds, the folksy Alvin York, or the downtrodden yet determined Marshal Kane, Cooper brought each of his characters alive in a way that audiences cherished both then and now.

Gary Cooper

Publicity photo c. 1936

Early Life

Gary Cooper was born as Frank James Cooper on May 5th, 1901 in Helena, Montana. Cooper's parents, Alice and Charles Cooper, were English immigrants. After arriving in America, Charles Cooper worked as a lawyer, rancher, and eventually a Supreme Court Justice.

Cooper grew up at his family's ranch, working to help raise their cattle like a true cowboy. While attending high school, Cooper developed a profound interest in the arts. He decided to pursue a career as an artist, and spent time working in both Chicago and Helena. In 1924, Cooper's parents moved to Los Angeles and Cooper, who had yet to find steady employment in his chosen field, decided to move with them.

After a few weeks without any gainful employment, a couple of Cooper's friends invited him to audition for a job as a stunt rider at a small movie studio while he waited on his art career to pick up. Cooper, an experienced rider from his days working at his family's ranch, agreed to give it a try.

Early Career

Cooper started out appearing in several low-budget westerns alongside some of the stars of the day. However, Cooper found the work arduous and risky, and sought to move into the easier and safer work of acting. On the advice of his agent, he changed his first name to "Gary", which he liked and kept for the rest of his life.

Cooper slowly worked his way up the ladder by first landing an assortment of bit parts followed by some minor credited roles. Eventually, with help from his then-girlfriend and Hollywood superstar Clara Bow (with whom he had appeared in the hit film It), Cooper landed leading roles in several successful movies, including Children of Divorce, Wings, and Lilic Time. Cooper's popularity rose with each film and he quickly became one of Hollywood's rising stars.

Rise to Stardom

Gary Cooper in The Virginian (1929)

In 1929, Cooper landed the lead role in his first sound picture, The Virginian. The film was a major hit, and helped define the western genre for years to come. Cooper's performance as the honest, honor-bound protagonist established the image of the ideal western hero that persists to the present day. The film also made Cooper an instant star, and his resident studio, Paramount, decided to capitalize on his newfound popularity by thrusting him into filming ten films over the next two years; of these films, the most noteworthy was the drama Morocco, where Cooper starred alongside Marlene Dietrich in her Hollywood debut. While Cooper's popularity soared over this period, the stress of making so many films so quickly left him both physically and emotionally drained. At the conclusion of this ten-film run, Cooper decided to take a year-long vacation to Europe to recuperate.

Upon returning to Hollywood in 1932, Cooper resumed his acting career, albeit at a more sensible pace. While his films over the next few years were hit-or-miss, Cooper did star in several critical and box office hits, including A Farewell to Arms (the first of two Hemingway adaptations in which he would star), Now and Forever (where he appeared alongside Shirley Temple), and The Lives of a Bengal Lancer (one of the 1930s biggest adventure films).

Peak Years

Mr. Deeds Goes to Town (1936)

Publicity photo for Mr. Deeds Goes to Town (1936) with Jean Arthur.

1936 was the start of the peak of Cooper's Hollywood career. Early that year, Cooper was selected by director Frank Capra for the title role in Mr. Deeds Goes to Town, for which Cooper earned his first Academy Award nomination for Best Actor. Cooper excelled in the role of the folksy and down-to-earth Longfellow Deeds, a character with whom he shared many personality similarities. Combined with the charming performance of co-star Jean Arthur and an excellent script courtesy of writer Robert Riskin, Mr. Deeds Goes to Town easily became Cooper's biggest hit at the time. Indeed, his performance crafted the image of the new American "folk hero" with which Cooper would be associated for the rest of his career.

The Plainsman (1936)

Cooper in The Plainsman (1936), again alongside Arthur.

Later in 1936, Cooper reunited with Arthur and returned to his roots in the western epic The Plainsman. Under the direction of the legendary Cecil B. DeMille, Cooper delivered another iconic Cooper-esque performance as Wild Bill Hickok and the film was a smash hit. The combined successes of Cooper in both Mr. Deeds and The Plainsman catapulted Cooper to the top of the list of actors under consideration for the vaulted role of Rhett Butler in Gone With the Wind. Producer David O. Selznick tried several times to convince Cooper to take the role, but after reading the script, Cooper felt that he was ill-suited for it. After witnessing Clark Gable's performance in the role in 1938, Cooper felt his earlier assessment was accurate.

Meet John Doe (1941)

Cooper in Meet John Doe (1941) with Barbara Stanwyck

Cooper took most of 1937 off from filmmaking, and his return in 1938 was marked by several box-office failures. However, Cooper returned to form beginning in 1939, during which he filmed the adventure epics Beau Geste and The Real Glory, which were in turn followed by The Westerner and North West Mounted Police in 1940. While each of these films were box-office successes, none quite matched the dazzling heights of Cooper's 1936 hits. However, in 1941, Frank Capra offered to reunite with Cooper for the comedy Meet John Doe. Without even reading the script, Cooper accepted, trusting Capra implicitly after their success with Mr. Deeds. Cooper's faith in Capra proved to be well-founded; Meet John Doe opened to rave reviews for both Cooper and co-star Barbara Stanwyck, with whom Cooper shared a delightful on-screen chemistry. Meet John Doe was also a commercial hit, and Cooper was back on top of Hollywood.

Sergeant York (1941)

Cooper in Sergeant York (1941)

Later that year, Cooper teamed up with director Howard Hawks to film perhaps his most memorable picture, Sergeant York. Cooper initially turned down the role, but was convinced to take it when contacted personally by Alvin York. Immediately upon meeting, Cooper and York established a good rapport and, while nervous about portraying a living hero, Cooper agreed to accept the role. Upon release, Sergeant York was a mega-hit, and easily became 1941's top-grossing movie. Critics raved over Cooper's performance, and for his efforts, Cooper earned his second nomination and first win for the Academy Award for Best Actor.

The Pride of the Yankees (1942)

Cooper and Babe Ruth in The Pride of the Yankees (1942)

Due to the outbreak of World War II, Cooper made only one film in 1942, The Pride of the Yankees. However, the film would be considered one of his finest. For the second time in as many years, Cooper found himself portraying a real-life hero in a biographical picture. Cooper felt he wasn't right for the role, as he knew nothing of baseball and was not left-handed like Lou Gehrig (a critical point of consideration for the batting sequences). However, Gehrig's widow, Eleanor Gehrig, insisted that Cooper play her husband and Cooper, under pressure from the studio, relented.

The studio in question, Samuel Goldwyn Productions, was nervous about the film's prospects; sports movies were not particularly popular at the time, so it was hoped that the inclusion of a high-profile star (Cooper, in this case) would serve as a hedge against a possible box-office flop. Ultimately, The Pride of the Yankees was a hit, receiving an Academy Award nomination for Best Picture and a third nomination for Cooper for Best Actor.

For Whom the Bell Tolls (1943)

Cooper and Ingrid Bergman in For Whom the Bell Tolls (1943)

In 1943, Cooper returned to the screen for his second Hemingway adaptation, For Whom the Bell Tolls. Starring alongside Ingrid Bergman (a new star in her own right after appearing in the surprise hit Casablanca a year earlier), Cooper delivered another fine performance and earned another Academy Award nomination for Best Actor, his fourth. Afterwards, Cooper would spend the rest of World War II on tour, visiting military hospitals and meeting the servicemen and women. Cooper would later call his adventures visiting with the military "the greatest emotional experience" of his life.

Late Career

Following World War II, Cooper's career fell into a bit of a rut. While he remained a major star, his films over the next few years underperformed. Along Came Jones (1945), Saratoga Trunk (1945), and Cloak and Dagger (1946) all contributed to this downturn; 1947's Unconquered proved to be Cooper's only appreciable success over this period.

The Fountainhead (1949)

Cooper in The Fountainhead (1949)

The low point of Cooper's career coincided with the release of The Fountainhead (1949). An adaptation of a novel by famed philosopher Ayn Rand, The Fountainhead was a highly-anticipated production. However, the film proved to be a colossal failure; a weak script which saw Cooper placed in a decidedly nontraditional role (a selfish anti-hero, diametrically opposed to the folksy "champion of the common man" which had defined his career) ultimately doomed the production.

Several explanations have been offered for Cooper's sudden downturn during this period. The first concerns the quality of the productions in which he starred; none of the films Cooper appeared in during this time were particularly well-executed. In addition, it's been suggested that the public's taste in movies evolved in the years after World War II, and Cooper's image as the "everyman's hero" simply wasn't that popular. Lastly, Cooper was simply getting old. In his mid-40s coming out of World War II, Cooper had been working in Hollywood for quite some time and his age was beginning to show. With each film, it was becoming increasingly difficult for audiences to embrace Cooper as a dashing young hero.

High Noon (1952)

Cooper with Grace Kelly in High Noon (1952)

In 1952, Cooper's fortunes began to turn back around when he starred in the suspenseful western High Noon. An allegory of the practice of blacklisting, High Noon featured Cooper's portrayal of the weary yet dutiful Marshal Kane. Combined with Grace Kelly's performance as his young bride, Cooper once again excelled in the role of the honor-bound hero. While the production was not without controversy, High Noon was a hit and led Cooper to his second Academy Award win for Best Actor.

Friendly Persuasion (1956)

Cooper and Dorothy McGuire in Friendly Persuasion (1956)

In 1956, Cooper again found himself in an unfamiliar role; that of an aging patriarch in Friendly Persuasion. While the part was decidedly new territory for Cooper (who had traditionally played bachelor roles), the film's theme of pacifism vs duty was becoming quite familiar to Cooper (Sergeant York and High Noon had tread much of the same ground) and he put on what was arguably one of his best performances. Cooper's ability to play to both the comedy and moral conflict of the story captivated audiences, and the picture was both a critical and commercial hit.

Man of the West (1958)

Cooper in Man of the West (1958)

In the mid-1950s, it was obvious that Cooper was nearing the end of his career. Cooper's health had been deteriorating for years, and his hit films were becoming fewer and farther between. In 1958, Cooper appeared in the dark western drama Man of the West, a production which would essentially serve as the swan song for his career. In the film, Cooper plays the role of a former outlaw who ends up battling his former gang. Many of the themes of moral conflicts that had marked the latter part of Cooper's career are present in Man of the West, and once again, Cooper played to them quite well. While Man of the West was not a critical or commercial success at the time of its release, the film and Cooper's performance have been re-evaluated in modern times and are now widely regarded as being among his best.

Later Years

Cooper appeared in only four films after completing Man of the West, none of which drew much attention. In 1961, Cooper retired for good. By that point, Cooper's health had seriously deteriorated; he had undergone operations for both prostate and intestinal cancer and was plagued by stomach ulcers. In February of that year, Cooper learned that he had inoperable cancer in his lungs and bones. On May 13, 1961, Gary Cooper passed away at his home in Holmby Hills (outside of Los Angeles), shortly after his 60th birthday.

Legacy

Gary Cooper, a Hollywood legend

Working professionally in Hollywood for 36 years and leading in over 80 films, Cooper had a long and varied career. For the most part, Cooper usually found himself in the role of a hero, and while that role evolved over the course of his career, I believe that it was during his peak years in the late 30s and early 40s, the time during which he mastered the part of the "homespun hero", that Cooper really shined brightest.

For me, Cooper's performance in Mr. Deeds Goes to Town is easily one of my all-time favorites. While the popular image of the "perfect American hero" has changed over the years, I think that Cooper's role as the "common man's hero" will endure as a testament not only to the times in which he lived, but of the man himself.

The Grand Tour

Pacific Coast Highway in California.

From about the 17th to the early 20th century, there was a traditional, extended trip across Europe on which young, upper-class European men would embark. This trip was called a Grand Tour, and it would typically take a young man to several of the major historical and cultural centers of Europe, serving as a both a rite-of-passage and an educational experience. The idea behind the Grand Tour was that after seeing the world first-hand and being immersed in the culture and history of European society (as well as mingling with the European aristocracy), a man would return home more educated, refined, and ready to take his place in the world as a true gentleman.

While the specific locations visited as part of a Grand Tour varied from one individual to another, culturally important cities such as Paris, Barcelona, Venice, Prague, Athens, Rome, Florence, Brussels, and Vienna were popular destinations. In addition, visits were often planned around certain events or seasons. While the tradition of a Grand Tour was always distinctly European, I have been wondering what an American Grand Tour would look like. Culture and history were the focus of the traditional Grand Tour, and while much younger than the iconic European locales, America is still rich in both. With that in mind, I set out to identify some of the places of cultural and historical significance (as well as a fun spot or two) that I would like to visit should I ever have the opportunity to embark on a "Grand Tour" of my own.

So, without further ado, I present my American Grand Tour.

The American Grand Tour

Boston - The Birthplace of America

Boston Harbor

Boston is historically important to America for an obvious reason: It's where the American Revolution started. The colonial heritage of America is well-preserved throughout the New England states, but perhaps no single city embodies it as much as Boston. In addition to its historical value, Boston also features a rich seafaring culture, which can best be seen in the cuisine. Besides being the craft beer capital of America, Boston also boasts some of the best seafood around. If you ever find yourself with a craving for colonial history, a good lager, and some Clam Chowder, this is the place to be.

New York - The Empire City

Empire State Building

To the world at large, perhaps no city is as quintessentially "American" as New York. After all, you could argue that New York is a microcosm of the country: A melting pot of cultures and ethnicities that make up the collective American identity. However, New York also has a culture that is all its own, and the best place to see this culture on display is nowhere other than Manhattan itself. In addition to its rich culture, New York also has no shortage of iconic sights (Statue of Liberty, Freedom Tower, Empire State Building, just to name a few), making it a "must" on the Grand Tour of America.

Washington - The Capital

The Capitol Building

Each city on this list possesses both sights and culture, but no locale features quite as many of the former as Washington, D.C. From the National Mall, to the White House, the Capitol Building, the Smithsonian, the Washington Monument, the Lincoln Memorial, the Jefferson Memorial, Arlington, and others, there is definitely no shortage of places to visit. While I admit that I have personally visited D.C. on three separate occasions and did not take the opportunity to sightsee on any of them (all three trips were for business), the landmarks alone place Washington near the top of my list of "Grand Tour" destinations. 

Savannah - The Hostess City of the South

Forsyth Park

Okay, I'll confess: I have a soft spot for the South. After all, Savannah, Georgia isn't one of the locales that come to mind when considering a "Grand Tour" of America. However, you'll be hard-pressed to find a city that does more to embody the culture and sophistication of the Antebellum South. Plantations, mansions, parks, beaches, and oak trees all combine to immerse you in the wrappings of a simpler, gentler time. If you want to experience the full charm of Southern Culture or just want to step into a scene straight out of Gone with the Wind, Savannah is the place to be.

Orlando - Theme Park Capital of the World

Cinderella Castle

While you're passing through the southern United States, why not drop by the "Happiest Place on Earth"? After all, no city in America is quite the tourist destination that Orlando is. Home to a myriad of theme parks and resorts, including Disney World (the world's #1 theme park and resort), Orlando provides a family-oriented entertainment experience found nowhere else in the world. Besides, who doesn't want a picture with Mickey?

Miami - Gateway to the Caribbean

Miami Beach

Part of me wonders if Spain knew just what they were giving up when they ceded Florida to the Untied States in 1821. Year-round warm weather, long white-sand beaches, crystal-clear water, abundant fishing; the list goes on. Today, Miami stands as the crown jewel of the state, serving not only as an amalgamation of the previously listed qualities, but also as a gateway to the rich landscape and culture of the Caribbean. Whether dropping by to enjoy the beaches, the Latin American culture, or just a home port for a cruise of the Caribbean, Miami is a city that you won't soon forget.

New Orleans - The Crescent City

Jackson Square

Perhaps no city on this list has a culture so uniquely its own as New Orleans. Known for the easy-going disposition of its residents and its melting-pot heritage (as well as the revelry of Mardi Gras), the Crescent City is a place quite unlike any other. Rich history, world-class cuisine, and a charm that is sure to leave an impression on anyone combine to make New Orleans a top destination for any trek across the country.

Louisville - Derby City

Churchill Downs

Some cities are on this list for their culture, others for the sights, and some for the unique experiences. As the home of the Kentucky Derby, Louisville is certainly one of the latter. Each year, on the first Saturday of May, tens of thousands of people descend on the hallowed grounds of Churchill Downs for the biggest thoroughbred race in the world. Here, the full pomp, pageantry, and glamor of horse racing is put on display for the entire world to see. Whether you attend for the thrill of the "Fastest Two Minutes in Sports" or just to soak up the charm of the sport, a visit at the Kentucky Derby is sure to be a crown jewel in any Grand Tour.

Indianapolis - The Birthplace of Speed

Indianapolis Motor Speedway

Detroit may be the birthplace of the auto industry, but Indianapolis is the cradle of auto racing. The centerpiece of American motorsport, the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, stands as a testament to the vision, courage, sacrifice, and triumph of the trailblazers of the sport. This spirit has become synonymous with Indianapolis; from the racing-themed establishments around the city, the murals to racing heroes of the past and present at the city's airport, and even the image of an Indy racecar engraved in the Indiana state quarter, it's easy to see how closely the city identifies with the sport. Each year, you can see this spirit on full display when IMS hosts the biggest race in the world, the Indianapolis 500. Whether you're an auto enthusiast or simply in the market for a world-class spectacle, a stop by Indianapolis for the Indy 500 is an easy call to make.

San Antonio - Alamo City

The Alamo

The legend of the American Old West is known around the world. The stories of cowboys, Indians, outlaws, and damsels in distress have held a special place in the collective imagination of people everywhere. San Antonio embodies this spirit, and not just because of its location deep inside of Texas. Truth be told, the city is home to perhaps the biggest story to ever come out of the Old West: The Battle of the Alamo. The legend of that battle and those who fought in it have intrigued people for well over a century, and the old Spanish mission itself still stands today, ready for anyone interested to visit and learn of its history. If you have ever been fascinated by the legends of the Old West, a visit to San Antonio would be well worth your time.

Las Vegas - City of Lights

Las Vegas Strip

It's entirely possible that of all the cities on this list, Las Vegas needs the least introduction. As the world's leading gaming and entertainment destination, the City of Lights is a place quite unlike any other. Despite its reputation for adult-centric thrills (and there are plenty of those to be had), Las Vegas actually does offer a wide variety of attractions that appeal to a broader consumer base, including world-class resorts, shows of every kind, and some of the best dining around. If you're not afraid to take a chance or two, Vegas might be the place for you.

Los Angeles - Home of the Stars

Hollywood Sign

It's my sincere belief that at some point in their lives, everyone dreams of being a star. Whether it's for fame, fortune, or fun, the allure of Hollywood is something that everyone understands. And while not all of us make it on the A-list, there's still plenty of fun to be had when taking a trip down Hollywood Boulevard. The Walk of Fame, Hollywood Wax Museum, Chinese Theatre, and the Musso & Frank Grill are all worth a visit. And who knows? You may even run into a real star or two taking their own stroll down the Boulevard...

Napa Valley - America's Vineyard

Napa Valley Vineyard

I've always thought that in a broad sense, vacations fall into one of two categories: Exciting and Relaxing, and anyone interested in the latter would do well to stop by Napa Valley. While California may be known as fast and fun playground, Napa Valley shows that the West Coast has a lot more to offer than adrenaline-fueled thrills. Here, you can take the opportunity to slow down and enjoy life at a more intentional pace. Featuring world-class wine, breathtaking scenery, and the charm of a good ol' Bed & Breakfast, Napa Valley puts the allure of a relaxing getaway on full display.

Honolulu - Crossroads of the Pacific

USS Arizona Memorial

As one of the world's top tourist destinations, there's a little for everyone in Honolulu. Whether you'd like to hike a volcano, catch some waves, or soak up some sun, there's always something to do at the Crossroads of the Pacific. However, I have a very different, personal reason for wanting to visit: My grandfather served in the Navy during World War II. As a kid, I was fascinated by the stories he would tell and of all the places he visited. At a young age, this instilled within me an interest in the events of the second World War and a profound respect for those who served in it. Therefore, it should come as no surprise that a stop by the USS Arizona Memorial is on my bucket list. I know that solemn reflection is rarely what people have in mind when it comes to a vacation (especially in a tourist hotbed like Honolulu), but in this case, it means everything to me.

Looking Back

The early 20th century saw the demise of the traditional Grand Tour. At the time, the development of commercial railways and the rise of the modern middle-class meant that long-distance travel was now easy, affordable, and practical for the common man. This, combined with the gradual dissolution of the aristocracy, meant that an elaborate, formalized "Grand Tour" was no longer the grand statement that it once was. Still, I believe that even today, a Grand Tour (or something like it) can serve as an important instructional and/or educational experience that could help anyone develop into a more well-rounded individual. Today's interconnected media may make the world seem like a small place, but the experience of seeing it first hand cannot be undervalued. Whether it's sights, sounds, experiences, or even simple peace and quite, I believe that each location on this list has something meaningful to offer.

I sincerely hope that you enjoyed reading about my American Grand Tour! To close, let me leave you with this parting question: Where would your Grand Tour take you?